An organized surveillance mechanism was established as National Polio Surveillance Project (NPSP) in 1997, which was a collaboration between the Government of India and the World Health Organization. The NPSP over the period of time built an institutional mechanism for acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) surveillance53,54. India reported the last case of wild polio virus (type 1) on January 13, 2011 from Howrah district in West Bengal. On February 25, 2012, the World Health Organization had removed India from polio endemic countries55. In early 2014, WHO Southeast Asia Region is expected to become 4th WHO region to be certified polio free. The major milestones in India becoming Polio free are outlined in Table VII.
The history of vaccination efforts suggests that the systematic methodological rigour is required to improve coverage with all antigens in a diverse country like India, with health being state subject. The methodological rigour of past and focus on research has a lot to guide immunization programme in India. Some of the key common areas in early vaccination efforts and current times are as follows : (i) Smallpox control efforts focused both on hygiene and sanitation measures and vaccination. This approach has to be followed for many new antigens such as Rotavirus diarrhoea etc.; (ii) There was strong opposition of vaccination by a section of experts and society. These groups derived strength from similar groups in other countries. Though time has changed, the similar groups exist in the present times, (iii) Limited and incomplete reporting of smallpox cases and deaths (disease surveillance) failed the programme managers to prove that vaccination is making any significant change. The disease surveillance scenario poses similar challenges in the current times.
A Brief History Of Time In Hindi Pdf Free Download
This chapter discusses an aspect of black hole behaviors' that Stephen Hawking discovered in the 1970s. According to earlier theories, black holes can only become larger, and never smaller, because nothing which enters a black hole can come out. However, in 1974, Hawking published a new theory which argued that black holes can "leak" radiation. He imagined what might happen if a pair of virtual particles appeared near the edge of a black hole. Virtual particles briefly 'borrow' energy from spacetime itself, then annihilate with each other, returning the borrowed energy and ceasing to exist. However, at the edge of a black hole, one virtual particle might be trapped by the black hole while the other escapes. Because of the second law of thermodynamics, particles are 'forbidden' from taking energy from the vacuum. Thus, the particle takes energy from the black hole instead of from the vacuum, and escape from the black hole as Hawking radiation.
Time is one of the seven fundamental physical quantities in both the International System of Units (SI) and International System of Quantities. The SI base unit of time is the second, which is defined by measuring the electronic transition frequency of caesium atoms. Time is used to define other quantities, such as velocity, so defining time in terms of such quantities would result in circularity of definition.[16] An operational definition of time, wherein one says that observing a certain number of repetitions of one or another standard cyclical event (such as the passage of a free-swinging pendulum) constitutes one standard unit such as the second, is highly useful in the conduct of both advanced experiments and everyday affairs of life. To describe observations of an event, a location (position in space) and time are typically noted.
Another solution to the problem of causality-based temporal paradoxes is that such paradoxes cannot arise simply because they have not arisen. As illustrated in numerous works of fiction, free will either ceases to exist in the past or the outcomes of such decisions are predetermined. As such, it would not be possible to enact the grandfather paradox because it is a historical fact that one's grandfather was not killed before his child (one's parent) was conceived. This view does not simply hold that history is an unchangeable constant, but that any change made by a hypothetical future time traveller would already have happened in his or her past, resulting in the reality that the traveller moves from. More elaboration on this view can be found in the Novikov self-consistency principle.
Uses of a sequence of events include stories,[93]historical events (chronology), directions and steps in procedures,[94]and timetables for scheduling activities. A sequence of events may also be used to help describe processes in science, technology, and medicine. A sequence of events may be focused on past events (e.g., stories, history, chronology), on future events that must be in a predetermined order (e.g., plans, schedules, procedures, timetables), or focused on the observation of past events with the expectation that the events will occur in the future (e.g., processes, projections). The use of a sequence of events occurs in fields as diverse as machines (cam timer), documentaries (Seconds From Disaster), law (choice of law), finance (directional-change intrinsic time), computer simulation (discrete event simulation), and electric power transmission[95](sequence of events recorder). A specific example of a sequence of events is the timeline of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.
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This catalog, accompanying the first comprehensive exhibition in the United States on the topic, examines one of the richest periods in the history of Japanese art, a time when political stability enabled a vibrant popular culture to develop.
Three preliminary issues are relevant to almost all discussions ofhistory and the philosophy of history. The first is a set of issueshaving to do with the "ontology" of history, the kinds of entities,processes, and events that make up the historical past. This topicconcerns the entities, forces, and structures that we postulate indescribing the historical phenomena, whether the medieval manor or theWeimar Republic, and the theory we have of how these social entitiesdepend upon the actions of the historical actors who embody them. Thesecond issue has to do with the problems of selectivity unavoidablefor the historian of any period or epoch. Here we take up the questionof how the unavoidable selectivity of historical inquiry in terms oftheme, location, scope, and scale influences the nature of historicalknowledge. The third issue has to do with the complicated relationshipthat exists between history, narrative, and collective memory. Thistopic addresses the point that real human beings make history. And, asMarc Bloch insists (1953), we humans are historical beings, we tellstories about ourselves, and those stories sometimes themselves havemajor historical consequences. The collective memories and identitiesof Serb nationalism were a historical fact in the 1990s, and theseelements of mythic collective identity led to massive bloodshed,ethnic cleansing, and murder during the violent breakup of Yugoslavia(Judt and Snyder, 2012; Judt, 2006).
This perspective does not diminish the ontological importance ofstructures, systems, and ideologies in history. It simply forces thehistorian, like the social scientist, to be attentive to the problemof articulating the relationship that exists between actors andstructures. A system of norms, a property system, and a moral ideologyof feudal loyalty can all be understood as being both objectivelypresent at a time and place, and being ontologically dependent uponthe mental frameworks, actions, and relationships of the individualactors who make up these systems. This problem has been thoroughlydiscussed in the philosophy of social science under the rubric of"ontological individualism" (Zahle and Collin, 2014). Higher-levelsocial entities are indeed causally powerful in the social world; andthey depend entirely for their causal powers on the characteristics ofthe individual actors who constitute them. This is the requirement ofmicrofoundations: extended social structures and causes depend uponmicrofoundations at the level of the individuals who constitute them(Little 2017). In particular, we need to have some idea about howindividuals have been brought to think and act in the ways required bythe structures and ideologies in which they function as adults. Onthis approach, history is the result of the actions and thoughts ofvast numbers of actors, and institutions, structures, and norms arelikewise embodied in the actions and mental frameworks of historicallysituated individuals. Such an approach helps to inoculate us againstthe error of reification of historical structures, periods, or forces,in favor of a more disaggregated conception of multiple actors andshifting conditions of action. This is the conception to which we aredrawn when we understand history along the lines proposed byBloch. 2ff7e9595c
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